-
1 monolithic form
Микроэлектроника: интегральное исполнение, исполнение в виде ИС, монолитное исполнение -
2 monolithic form
монолітне виконання; інтегральне виконання, виконання у вигляді ІСEnglish-Ukrainian dictionary of microelectronics > monolithic form
-
3 monolithic form
English-Russian dictionary of microelectronics > monolithic form
-
4 form
1. ім. форма; вигляд 2. дієсл. формувати; утворювати - discrete wafer form
- hybrid form
- integrated-circuit form
- monolithic form
- multichip form
- SMD form -
5 construction
1. строительство, постройка, возведение2. конструкция; конструктивная система; сооружение3. схема устройства4. построениеconstruction of formwork — опалубочные работы, возведение опалубки
acoustic construction — строительство с соблюдением установленных требований в отношении звукоизоляции
arched construction — арочная конструкция; здание с арочным или сводчатым перекрытием
balloon frame construction — деревянный каркас с балками, опирающимися на бобышки
beam-and-column construction — балочно-стоечная конструкция, балочно-стоечный каркас
beam-and-girder construction — балочная конструкция, балочная клетка, система перекрёстных балок
bolted construction — болтовая конструкция, конструкция с болтовыми соединениями
bridge construction fully supported on staging — бетонирование пролётного строения на сплошных подмостях
building construction — жилищное строительство, строительство жилых и общественных зданий
5. строительство из монолитного бетона6. конструкция из монолитного бетона, монолитная конструкция7. сборно-монолитная бетонная конструкция8. строительство из сборно-монолитного бетона9. конструкция из стальных холодногнутых профилей10. возведение сооружений из стальных холодногнутых профилей11. строительство в холодное время года12. строительство в районах Крайнего Севера13. комбинированная конструкцияtype of construction — тип конструкции; вид конструкции
14. сталежелезобетонная конструкцияconstruction type — тип конструкции; вид конструкции
15. сборно-монолитная железобетонная конструкция16. бетонная конструкция17. бетонные работы18. строительство из кирпича19. кирпичные конструкцииexternal construction exposed to the weather — наружная конструкция, подверженная воздействию погодных факторов
filler-joist construction — конструкция перекрытия или покрытия, состоящая из стальных балок с заполнением из керамических или бетонных блоков
20. устройство полов21. конструкция пола22. конструкция перекрытияframe construction — рамная конструкция; каркасная деревянная конструкция
23. высотная конструкция24. строительство высотных домов25. конструкция заводского изготовления26. сборное строительство с использованием элементов заводского изготовленияin-situ reinforced concrete construction — монолитная железобетонная конструкция; строительство монолитных железобетонных конструкций
large panel construction — крупнопанельное строительство; изготовление крупных железобетонных панелей
large precast concrete panel construction — строительство с применением крупных железобетонных панелей
27. строительство из лёгких конструкций28. лёгкая конструкция29. сборное строительство из объёмных блоковconstruction unit — блок; модуль; узел
30. сооружение, монтируемое из пространственных блоковmultistage construction — поэтапное строительство, строительство в несколько очередей
31. панельная конструкция32. поэтапное строительство по совмещённому графику33. строительство асфальтобетонных покрытий дорог и улиц методом последовательного наложения по графику конструктивных слоёв на участках большой протяжённостиpost-and-lintel construction — балочно-стоечная конструкция; балочно-стоечный каркас
34. сборное строительство35. сборная конструкцияsteel construction — стальная конструкция, металлоконструкция
36. сборная железобетонная панельная конструкции37. панельное строительствоpre-post-tensioned construction — сборная или сборно-монолитная железобетонная конструкция, преднапряжённые элементы которой дополнительно стягиваются напрягаемой арматурой после возведения
pretensioned construction — предварительно напряжённая железобетонная конструкция с натяжением арматуры на упоры
protected construction — конструкция, заданный предел огнестойкости всех несущих элементов которой обеспечен соответствующими мерами защиты
38. железобетонная конструкция39. строительство из железобетона40. дорожное строительство41. дорожная одежда42. рубленый дом; сруб43. строительство бревенчатых стенsegmental span-by-span construction — попролётное навесное бетонирование секциями в передвижном агрегате
44. стальная конструкцияmodular construction — модульная конструкция; модульная структура
45. возведение стальных конструкцийstressed-skin construction — пространственная стержневая конструкция с напряжённой ограждающей оболочкой
46. строительство башенных сооружений47. башенная конструкцияunbonded posttension construction — преднапряжённая конструкция без сцепления напрягаемой арматуры с бетоном
wet construction — строительство с применением «мокрых» процессов
48. деревянная конструкция49. строительство из дерева -
6 Historical Portugal
Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims inPortugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and theChurch (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict untilUN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU. -
7 construction
- construction
- n1) строительство, постройка, возведение
2) конструкция; конструктивная система; сооружение
3) схема устройства
4) построение (напр. эпюры)
- construction performed by the owner's own forces
- construction to close tolerances
- construction of floor joints
- construction of formwork
- construction of infrastructures
- accelerated construction
- acoustic construction
- adobe construction
- airport construction
- all-steel construction
- alternate bay construction
- alternate lane construction
- arched construction
- arctic construction
- balanced cantilever construction
- balloon frame construction
- beam construction
- beam-and-column construction
- beam-and-girder construction
- bearing construction
- bolted construction
- brick-veneer construction
- bridge construction fully supported on staging
- building construction
- cantilever construction
- capital construction
- carry-over construction
- cast-in-place construction
- cast-in-place and precast construction
- cold-formed steel construction
- cold weather construction
- composite construction
- composite floor construction
- concrete construction
- concrete-masonry construction
- concrete masonry unit construction
- concrete monolithic construction
- continuous deck construction
- cost-effective construction
- cross-wall construction
- discontinuous construction
- engineered brick construction
- engineering constructions
- external construction exposed to the weather
- fast construction
- filler-joist construction
- fireproof construction
- flat slab construction
- floor construction
- folded-plate construction
- force polygon construction
- formed steel construction
- frame construction
- girderless floor construction
- graphical construction
- heavy construction
- high-rise construction
- hung floor construction
- industrialized construction
- in-situ reinforced concrete construction
- large panel construction
- large precast concrete panel construction
- lift-slab construction
- light-gauge steel construction
- light noncombustible constructions
- lightweight construction
- lightweight building construction
- marine construction
- masonry construction
- modular construction
- multiply construction
- multistage construction
- mushroom construction
- noncombustible construction
- one-way joist construction
- open cut construction
- ordinary construction
- panel construction
- particular construction
- planned-stage construction
- post-and-lintel construction
- post-tensioned construction
- precast construction
- precast panel construction
- prefabricated construction
- pre-post-tensioned construction
- pretensioned construction
- protected construction
- public construction
- public works construction
- rammed-earth construction
- rapid construction
- rapid in-situ concrete construction
- reinforced concrete construction
- reinforced concrete-frame construction
- residential construction
- rigid frame construction
- road construction
- round-log construction
- sandwich construction
- sausage construction
- school construction
- segmental span-by-span construction
- semifireproof construction
- simple frame construction
- skeleton construction
- slanting construction
- slipform construction
- slow-burning construction
- sound construction
- stage construction
- stationary form construction
- steel construction
- steel-concrete composite construction
- steel-frame construction
- stressed-skin construction
- structural steel construction
- sturdy construction
- thin-shell concrete construction
- timber construction
- timber framed construction
- top down construction
- tower construction
- tubular metal construction
- tunnel construction
- two-course floor construction
- typical construction
- unbonded posttension construction
- unit construction
- unprotected metal construction
- veneered construction
- water-retaining construction
- wet construction
- wet plaster construction
- wood construction
- wood and timber construction
- wood-frame construction
Англо-русский строительный словарь. — М.: Русский Язык. С.Н.Корчемкина, С.К.Кашкина, С.В.Курбатова. 1995.
-
8 lining
1) горн. крепь2) облицовка ( внутренняя), облицовочный материал3) футеровка, футеровочный материал4) крепление (горной выработки, канала), постановка крепи9) рихтовка; выпрямление; выравнивание10) мн. ч. бумага под оклейку обоями12) прокладка13) лесн. отделка жилкой16) ярусный крючковый лов ( рыбы)18) подкладка, подкладочная ткань•-
absorptive lining
-
acid lining
-
acidproof lining
-
alkaliproof lining
-
all-basic lining
-
aluminous lining
-
arched lining
-
axle lining
-
back lining
-
bitumen lining
-
block-stone lining
-
board lining
-
bonded lining
-
borehole lining
-
bottom lining
-
brake lining
-
brake-shoe lining
-
brick lining
-
buried asphalt membrane lining
-
canal lining
-
carbon lining
-
castable lining
-
cement lining
-
ceramic fiber lining
-
chimney lining
-
collar lining
-
concrete lining
-
duct lining
-
earth lining
-
elbow lining
-
firebrick lining
-
fireclay lining
-
flash lining
-
flexible canal lining
-
flint lining
-
floor lining
-
flue lining
-
form lining
-
furnace lining
-
fused lining
-
glass lining
-
gunite lining
-
gunned lining
-
heat-insulating lining
-
high-density lining
-
hot-top lining
-
hydrostatic lining
-
inside lining
-
in-situ lining
-
insulating lining
-
interior end lining
-
interior wall lining
-
jamb lining
-
kiln lining
-
ladle lining
-
lining of pressed-tar-dolomite brick
-
match lining
-
monolithic lining
-
permanent lining
-
pipe inner lining
-
protective lining
-
quarter lining
-
rammed bottom lining
-
rammed lining
-
refractory lining
-
reveal lining
-
rigid canal lining
-
ring lining
-
rubber lining
-
runner lining
-
safety lining
-
segment lining
-
segmental lining
-
semipermanent lining
-
shaft lining
-
shotcrete lining
-
silica lining
-
spillway floor lining
-
stabilized earth lining
-
stack lining
-
studio lining
-
tamped lining
-
tar-dolomite lining
-
tile lining
-
tunnel lining
-
vessel lining
-
wall lining
-
watertight lining
-
working lining -
9 concrete
1) бетон
2) бетонированный
3) бетонировать
4) бетонирующий
5) бетонный
6) забетонировать
7) конкретный
8) именованный
– above-water concrete
– acid-resisting concrete
– airfield-grade concrete
– autoclave concrete
– bloat concrete
– boot concrete
– bush-hammer concrete
– cellular concrete
– cement concrete
– clinker concrete
– coarse concrete
– cold-weather concrete
– compact concrete
– concrete bleeds
– concrete block
– concrete breaker
– concrete buggy
– concrete dam
– concrete definition
– concrete footing
– concrete forming
– concrete foundation
– concrete hardens
– concrete inundation
– concrete mix
– concrete mixer
– concrete mixing
– concrete number
– concrete pile
– concrete pipeline
– concrete pit
– concrete placer
– concrete raft
– concrete sets
– concrete slab
– concrete tie
– concrete trough
– controlled-quality concrete
– crushed-stone concrete
– cure concrete
– curing concrete
– curing of concrete
– cyclopean concrete
– demold concrete
– dense concrete
– dry concrete
– fatness of concrete
– fibrous concrete
– fine concrete
– finishing concrete
– float concrete
– foam concrete
– glass-reinforced concrete
– granite concrete
– gravel concrete
– green concrete
– hardening of concrete
– hardness of concrete
– heat-resistant concrete
– heavy-weight concrete
– high-temperature concrete
– honeycomb concrete
– honeycombing concrete
– ice concrete
– inhibit set of concrete
– insulating concrete
– lean concrete
– light-weight concrete
– light-weight-aggregate concrete
– lime concrete
– limestone concrete
– mobility of concrete
– monolithic concrete
– mushy concrete
– no-sand concrete
– no-slump concrete
– organic concrete
– place concrete
– plain concrete
– Portland-cement concrete
– poured concrete
– precast concrete
– prestressed concrete
– promote set of concrete
– reactive-aggregate concrete
– ready-mixed concrete
– refractory concrete
– reinforce concrete
– reinforced concrete
– render concrete
– retard set of concrete
– rich concrete
– road concrete
– sand-and-gravel concrete
– sandwich concrete
– sawdust concrete
– screed concrete
– slag concrete
– spread concrete
– spreading of concrete
– steam-cure concrete
– stone concrete
– structural concrete
– underground concrete
– underwater concrete
– watertight concrete
– weather-resistant concrete
cast-in-situ reinforced concrete — монолитный железобетонный мост
concrete delivery mixer — <constr.> автобетономешалка
exposed aggregate concrete — бетон с обнаженным заполнителем
proportions of concrete mix — соотношение составляющих бетонной смеси
two-way reinforced concrete — железобетон с перекрестной арматур
-
10 concrete
1) бетон3) бетонный4) бетонировать; сращивать5) конкретный; определённый•to lay concrete in alternate bay — укладывать бетонное покрытие "через плиту" ( дорожное строительство)
to let into concrete — забетонировать; заделать в бетон
to mix concrete "en route" — перемешивать бетон в пути ( в автобетономешалке)
to prestress reinforced concrete by post-tensioning — предварительно напрягать железобетон натяжением на упоры
to transfer stress from the reinforcing steel to the concrete — обжимать бетон при предварительном напряжении в изделии
to strike off surplus concrete — снимать, срезать излишки бетона
- concrete of stiff consistency - above-water concrete - acid-resisting concrete - adjustment of concrete mixture - aerated concrete - ageing of concrete - agglomerate-foam concrete - air-entrained concrete - air-entraining concrete - air-entrapped concrete - air-hardening of concrete - airfree concrete - air-placed concrete - airtight concrete - antiseptic concrete - application of concrete mixture - architectural concrete - architectural exposed concrete - armoured concrete - articulated concrete - asbestos-foamed concrete - as cast concrete - ash concrete - asphalt concrete - asphaltic concrete - asphaltic-cement concrete - as-placed concrete - autoclaved concrete - autoclaved cellular concrete - awakened concrete - balancing of proposed concrete mix - arrangement of steel in reinforced concrete - ballast concrete - batching of concrete mix - batching of concrete mix by volume - batching of concrete mix by weight - belt-conveyed concrete - biological shielding concrete - bituminous concrete - bituminous concrete pavement - bleeding of concrete - blown-out concrete - bonded to the steel concrete - booted concrete - breakdown test for concrete sample - breeze concrete - broken concrete - build concrete - buried concrete - bush-hammered concrete - cassie concrete - cast concrete - cast-in-place concrete - cast-in-situ concrete - cell concrete - cellular concrete - cement concrete - cement concrete pavement - central-mixed concrete - ceramsite concrete - cinder concrete - close-up failures in concrete structure - coarse concrete - coarseness of concrete mixture grading - cinder cement concrete - coke cement concrete - cold weather concrete - colloidal concrete - coloured concrete - compacted concrete - continuous concrete - controlled-quality concrete - copper-bearing concrete - corrosion-damaged concrete - crack safety of reinforced concrete elements - crazed concrete - crushed concrete - crushed-stone concrete - cured concrete - curing of concrete by ponding - curing of concrete units - curing of test concrete specimens - custom concrete - dead load of concrete structure - de-aerated concrete - deformation of concrete mix - delayed-setting concrete - dense concrete - dense ballast concrete - deposing of concrete - dry-mix concrete - dry concrete - early-strength concrete - earth concrete - electrically conductive concrete - epoxy concrete - excess concrete - expansive concrete - exposed concrete - extra-heavy concrete - fast-hardening concrete - fat concrete - faulty concrete - fibrous concrete - field concrete - fine concrete - finished concrete - floated concrete - floating concrete mixture plant - fluating of concrete - fluid concrete - fly-ash concrete - foam concrete - folding concrete form - fresh concrete - fully consolidated concrete - gas concrete - glass concrete - glass-fibre reinforced concrete - granite concrete - gravel concrete - gravel-aggregated concrete - green concrete - grouted-aggregate concrete - guss concrete - hand-compacted concrete - gypsum concrete - gypsum fibre concrete - hard concrete - hard rock concrete - hardened concrete - hardening of concrete - harsh concrete - haydite concrete - hearting concrete - heat-insulating concrete - heat-resistant concrete - heavy concrete - high-slump concrete - high-strength concrete - hollow concrete - homogeneous concrete - honeycombing concrete - hooped concrete - hot-laid asphaltic concrete - hydraulic concrete - ingredients of concrete - in-situ concrete - integral waterproofing of concrete - iron-shot concrete - job-mixed concrete - job-placed concrete - jonquil concrete - lean concrete - light aggregate concrete - lightweight concrete - lightweight aggregate concrete - lilac concrete - lime concrete - liquid concrete - liquid glass concrete - loose concrete - low-porosity concrete - low-slump concrete - machine-mixed concrete - marine concrete - mass concrete - mushy consistency of concrete - nailable concrete - nailing concrete - normal concrete - normal heavy concrete - no-slump concrete - off-formwork concrete - ordinary dense concrete - overnight concrete - oversite concrete - pavement concrete - placeability of concrete - placement of concrete - plain concrete - polymer concrete - polypropylene-fibre reinforced concrete - polystyrene-foam concrete - poor concrete - poor-quality concrete - popcorn concrete - porous concrete - portland-cement concrete - portland-pozzolana concrete - poured-in-place concrete - post-stressed concrete - post-tensioned concrete - precast concrete - precast structural concrete - prepacked aggregate concrete - pressed concrete - prestressed concrete - prestressed concrete with anchor loops - prestressed concrete with anchor plates - pumice concrete - pump concrete - quality concrete - rammed concrete - reactive aggregate concrete - ready-mix concrete - ready-mixed concrete - refractory concrete - reinforced concrete - rich concrete - roller compacted concrete - rough concrete - rubble concrete - sample of concrete - sand and gravel concrete - sand-cinder concrete - sandwich concrete - sawdust concrete - segregated concrete - segregating concrete - self-stressed concrete - setting of concrete - site concrete - slag concrete - slag-foam concrete - slow-setting concrete - spread concrete - spreaded concrete - spun concrete - stamped concrete - steam-cured concrete - steamed concrete - steel concrete - steel-fibre reinforced concrete - stiff concrete - stone concrete - structural concrete - stuck concrete - subaqueous concrete - substandard concrete - sulphur concrete - sulphur modified concrete - tamped concrete - tar concrete - terazzo concrete - transit-mix concrete - transit-mixed concrete - tremie concrete - ultra-high-strength concrete - undersanded concrete - underwater concrete - unworkable concrete - vacuum concrete - vacuum-treated concrete - vermiculite concrete - water-cured concrete - waterproof concrete - watertight concrete - weather resistant concrete - wet concrete - wood-fibre concrete - workability of concrete - workable concreteto strike off excess concrete — снимать, срезать излишки бетона
* * *бетон; бетонная смесь || бетонироватьconcrete around reinforcing steel — бетон в зоне [между стержнями] арматуры
concrete compacted by jolting — бетонная смесь, уплотнённая ударным методом [трамбованием]
concrete cured at 20°C — бетон, выдерживаемый при температуре 20°C
concrete cured at elevated temperatures — бетон, выдержанный [отвердевший] в условиях повышенных температур
concrete in mass — массивный бетон, бетон, уложенный в большой массив
concrete in the structure — бетон в теле конструкции [сооружения] ( в отличие от бетона в контрольных образцах)
concrete placed in lifts — бетон, укладываемый слоями [послойно]
concrete placed in the work — бетон, уложенный в конструкцию
concrete strong enough to support its own weight — бетон, достигший прочности, достаточной для восприятия собственного веса
concrete strong enough to support superimposed loads — бетон, достигший прочности, позволяющей воспринимать приложенные [временные] нагрузки
- concrete of inadequate qualityconcrete with a high cement factor — бетонная смесь с большим содержанием цемента, жирная бетонная смесь
- concrete of the required quality
- abrasion-resistant concrete
- acid-resisting concrete
- acrylic concrete
- aerated concrete
- air-entrained concrete
- air entrapped concrete
- air-placed concrete
- air-tight concrete
- alkali-resistant glass grain-reinforced concrete
- all-lightweight-aggregate concrete
- architectural concrete
- architectural exposed concrete
- architectural precast concrete
- asbestos foamed concrete
- as-mixed concrete
- asphaltic concrete
- asphalt concrete
- as-placed concrete
- autoclaved concrete
- backfill concrete
- basalt chippings concrete
- base course concrete
- base concrete
- belt-conveyed concrete
- biological shielding concrete
- bitumen concrete
- black concrete
- blended cement concrete
- blinding concrete
- board-finished concrete
- board marked concrete
- breeze concrete
- brick-look concrete
- brushed concrete
- bulk concrete
- bush hammered concrete
- calcium silicate concrete
- cast-in-place concrete
- cellular concrete
- cement concrete
- centrifugally cast concrete
- chloride-contaminated concrete
- cinder concrete
- clay concrete
- coarse-graded asphaltic concrete
- coarse asphaltic concrete
- coarse-graded asphalt concrete
- coarse asphalt concrete
- cold-laid asphaltic concrete
- cold asphaltic concrete
- cold-laid asphalt concrete
- cold asphalt concrete
- colloidal concrete
- colored concrete
- compacted concrete
- composite reinforced concrete
- constructional concrete
- continuously reinforced concrete
- conventional concrete
- corrosion-damaged concrete
- crushed concrete
- crushed brick concrete
- cryogenic concrete
- cured concrete
- custom concrete
- cyclopean concrete
- dense concrete
- densit concrete
- dingy concrete
- disintegrated concrete
- doubly prestressed concrete
- doubly reinforced concrete
- dry concrete
- dry mixture concrete
- dry mix concrete
- durable concrete
- earth-damp concrete
- electrically conductive concrete
- electrically heated concrete
- epoxy concrete
- exfoliated vermiculite concrete
- expanded concrete
- expanded-clay concrete
- expansive-cement concrete
- exposed aggregate concrete
- extra heavy concrete
- extreme lightweight concrete
- extruded concrete
- facing concrete
- fair-faced concrete
- fat concrete
- fiber reinforced concrete
- field concrete
- field-cured concrete
- fill concrete
- fine grained concrete
- fine grain concrete
- fire-proof concrete
- floated concrete
- flowing concrete
- flow concrete
- foamed concrete
- foamed slag concrete
- foam-gas concrete
- free-flowing concrete
- fresh concrete
- freshly laid concrete
- freshly mixed concrete
- freshly placed concrete
- fully consolidated concrete
- furnace cinder concrete
- gas concrete
- glass concrete
- glass-fiber reinforced concrete
- granolithic concrete
- green concrete
- grouted-aggregate concrete
- grouted concrete
- gunned concrete
- gypsum concrete
- gypsum fiber concrete
- hand mixed concrete
- hardened concrete
- harsh concrete
- hearting concrete
- heated concrete
- heat insulating concrete
- heat-resistant concrete
- heavyweight concrete
- weight concrete
- high-density concrete
- high-early-strength concrete
- high flowability concrete
- high-pressure steam cured concrete
- high-strength concrete
- high-temperature-resisting concrete
- high-temperature concrete
- high-workability concrete
- holdover concrete
- honeycombed concrete
- hot concrete
- hot-laid asphaltic concrete
- hot asphaltic concrete
- hot-laid asphalt concrete
- hot asphalt concrete
- hot weather concrete
- hydraulic concrete
- ice concrete
- improved quality concrete
- in-fill concrete
- initial concrete
- in-situ concrete
- insulating concrete
- integrally colored concrete
- iron-shot concrete
- latex modified concrete
- lean mix concrete
- lean concrete
- left-over concrete
- lightweight concrete
- lightweight aggregate concrete
- lime concrete
- low cement content concrete
- low-density concrete
- low-grade concrete
- low-heat concrete
- low-pressure steam cured concrete
- low-slump concrete
- low-slump dense concrete
- low workability concrete
- machine mixed concrete
- marine concrete
- mass concrete
- microsilica concrete
- monolithic concrete
- mushy concrete
- nailable concrete
- new concrete
- no-fines concrete
- no-fine concrete
- noncomplying concrete
- nonshrink concrete
- normal-weight concrete
- normal concrete
- no-slump concrete
- no-voids concrete
- ocrated concrete
- off-formwork concrete
- ordinary structural concrete
- ornamental concrete
- oversite concrete
- packaged concrete
- pattern stamped concrete
- pavement concrete
- perlite aggregate concrete
- perlite concrete
- perlite insulating concrete
- pfa concrete
- pigmented concrete
- plain concrete
- plant-mixed concrete
- plastic concrete
- plastic state concrete
- pneumatically placed concrete
- polyester resin concrete
- polyester concrete
- polymer concrete
- polymer-cement concrete
- polymer-impregnated concrete
- polymer-modified concrete
- polymer-modified glass-fiber-reinforced concrete
- polystyrene bead concrete
- polystyrene-foam concrete
- poor concrete
- popcorn concrete
- porous concrete
- Portland cement concrete
- post-tension concrete
- pourable concrete
- poured-in-place concrete
- pozzolana concrete
- precast concrete
- precast glass-fiber-reinforced concrete
- precast prestressed concrete
- precast reinforced concrete
- precast with cast-in-place concrete
- prefabricated reinforced concrete
- prefab reinforced concrete
- prepacked aggregate concrete
- prepacked concrete
- pre-post tensioned concrete
- prestressed concrete
- pretensioned concrete
- pretension concrete
- properly consolidated concrete
- pumice concrete
- pumpable concrete
- quality concrete
- quality controlled concrete
- radiation shielding concrete
- rammed concrete
- ready mixed concrete
- recycled concrete
- refractory concrete
- refractory insulating concrete
- regular concrete
- reinforced concrete
- reinforced polymer concrete
- resin concrete
- resin modified cement concrete
- returned concrete
- rich concrete
- roller compacted concrete
- rubble concrete
- salt water resistant concrete
- sand concrete
- sand blasted concrete
- sawdust concrete
- scale-resistant concrete
- scoria concrete
- sealed concrete
- seawater resisting concrete
- seawater concrete
- self-compacting concrete
- self-stressed concrete
- semidry concrete
- semilightweight concrete
- set concrete
- shielding concrete
- shrinkage compensating concrete
- shrink-mixed concrete
- shuttered concrete
- silica-fume concrete
- silicate concrete
- site concrete
- site mixed concrete
- site mixed ready mixed concrete
- slag concrete
- specialty concretes
- special concretes
- specified ready mixed concrete
- sprayed concrete
- sprayed steel fiber concrete
- spun concrete
- stabilized concrete
- stamped concrete
- standard concrete
- steam cured concrete
- steel fiber concrete
- steel fiber reinforced concrete
- steel fibrous concrete
- sticky concrete
- stiff consistency concrete
- stiff concrete
- stone concrete
- structural concrete
- structural lightweight aggregate concrete
- structural lightweight concrete
- structural precast concrete
- submerged concrete
- sulfate-resistant concrete
- sulfur concrete
- sulfur-modified concrete
- super concrete
- superplasticized concrete
- superplasticized flowing concrete
- tamped concrete
- tar concrete
- terrazzo concrete
- textured architectural concrete
- textured concrete
- textured concrete left as cast
- three component concrete
- tooled concrete
- transit-mix concrete
- translucent concrete
- tremie concrete
- trowelled concrete
- truck-mixed concrete
- two-component concrete
- ultra-high-strength concrete
- uncured concrete
- undersanded concrete
- underwater concrete
- uniform concrete
- unreinforced concrete
- unsurfaced exposed concrete
- vacuum treated concrete
- vacuum concrete
- vermiculate concrete
- vibrated concrete
- waterproofed concrete
- water-repellent concrete
- watertight concrete
- weak concrete
- wearproof concrete
- wet concrete
- white cement concrete
- white concrete
- wire prestressed precast concrete
- wire stressed precast concrete
- wood cement concrete
- wood fiber concrete
- zero slump concrete -
11 group
1) группа, ансамбль || групповой- roughing mill group2) совокупность; комплект3) группировка || группировать(ся)5) класс; категория || классифицировать; категоризировать6) хим. остаток7) сгусток; скопление8) узел9) матем. группа- absolute free group - absolute homotopy group - absolutely irreducible group - absolutely simple group - additively written group - adele group - adelic group - algebraically compact group - algebraically simple group - almost connected group - almost cyclic group - almost ordered group - almost periodic group - almost simple group - alternating form group - cancellative group - cellular homology group - characteristically simple group - complementing group - completely anisotropic group - completely discontinuous group - completely divisible group - completely indecomposable group - completely integrally closed group - deficient group - direct homology group - direct indecomposable group - doubly transitive group - finitely defined group - finitely generated group - finitely presented group - finitely related group - first homology group - first homotopy group - freely generated group - full linear group - full orthogonal group - full rotation group - full symmetric group - full unimodular group - group of classes of algebras - group of covering transformations - group of finite rank - group of infinite order - group of infinite rank - group of inner automorphisms - group of linear equivalence - group of linear forms - group of linear manifold - group of principal ideles - group of real line - group of recursive permutations - group of right quotients - idele class group - linearly ordered group - linearly transitive group - locally bicompact group - locally closed group - locally compact group - locally connected group - locally cyclic group - locally defined group - locally embeddable group - locally finite group - locally free group - locally infinite group - locally nilpotent group - locally normal group - locally solvable group - multiply primitive group - multiply transitive group - nonsolvable group - n-th homotopy group - ordered pair group - principal congruence group - properly orthogonal group - properly unimodular group - pure projective group - pure rotation group - pure simple group - quasipure projective group - quotient divisible group - residually nilpotent group - restricted holonomy group - sharply transitive group - simply ordered group - simply reducible group - simply transitive group - singular cogomology group - singular homology group - solvable group - stable group - strictly transitive group - strongly polycyclic group - subsolvable group - supersolvable group - totally ordered group - totally projective group - totally reducible group - triply transitive group - unitary symmetry group - unitary transformation group - value group - weak homology group - weakly mixing groupgroup with multiple operators — группа с многоместными операторами, мультиоператорная группа
-
12 Catholic church
The Catholic Church and the Catholic religion together represent the oldest and most enduring of all Portuguese institutions. Because its origins as an institution go back at least to the middle of the third century, if not earlier, the Christian and later the Catholic Church is much older than any other Portuguese institution or major cultural influence, including the monarchy (lasting 770 years) or Islam (540 years). Indeed, it is older than Portugal (869 years) itself. The Church, despite its changing doctrine and form, dates to the period when Roman Lusitania was Christianized.In its earlier period, the Church played an important role in the creation of an independent Portuguese monarchy, as well as in the colonization and settlement of various regions of the shifting Christian-Muslim frontier as it moved south. Until the rise of absolutist monarchy and central government, the Church dominated all public and private life and provided the only education available, along with the only hospitals and charity institutions. During the Middle Ages and the early stage of the overseas empire, the Church accumulated a great deal of wealth. One historian suggests that, by 1700, one-third of the land in Portugal was owned by the Church. Besides land, Catholic institutions possessed a large number of chapels, churches and cathedrals, capital, and other property.Extensive periods of Portuguese history witnessed either conflict or cooperation between the Church as the monarchy increasingly sought to gain direct control of the realm. The monarchy challenged the great power and wealth of the Church, especially after the acquisition of the first overseas empire (1415-1580). When King João III requested the pope to allow Portugal to establish the Inquisition (Holy Office) in the country and the request was finally granted in 1531, royal power, more than religion was the chief concern. The Inquisition acted as a judicial arm of the Catholic Church in order to root out heresies, primarily Judaism and Islam, and later Protestantism. But the Inquisition became an instrument used by the crown to strengthen its power and jurisdiction.The Church's power and prestige in governance came under direct attack for the first time under the Marquis of Pombal (1750-77) when, as the king's prime minister, he placed regalism above the Church's interests. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, although they were allowed to return after Pombal left office. Pombal also harnessed the Inquisition and put in place other anticlerical measures. With the rise of liberalism and the efforts to secularize Portugal after 1820, considerable Church-state conflict occurred. The new liberal state weakened the power and position of the Church in various ways: in 1834, all religious orders were suppressed and their property confiscated both in Portugal and in the empire and, in the 1830s and 1840s, agrarian reform programs confiscated and sold large portions of Church lands. By the 1850s, Church-state relations had improved, various religious orders were allowed to return, and the Church's influence was largely restored. By the late 19th century, Church and state were closely allied again. Church roles in all levels of education were pervasive, and there was a popular Catholic revival under way.With the rise of republicanism and the early years of the First Republic, especially from 1910 to 1917, Church-state relations reached a new low. A major tenet of republicanism was anticlericalism and the belief that the Church was as much to blame as the monarchy for the backwardness of Portuguese society. The provisional republican government's 1911 Law of Separation decreed the secularization of public life on a scale unknown in Portugal. Among the new measures that Catholics and the Church opposed were legalization of divorce, appropriation of all Church property by the state, abolition of religious oaths for various posts, suppression of the theology school at Coimbra University, abolition of saints' days as public holidays, abolition of nunneries and expulsion of the Jesuits, closing of seminaries, secularization of all public education, and banning of religious courses in schools.After considerable civil strife over the religious question under the republic, President Sidónio Pais restored normal relations with the Holy See and made concessions to the Portuguese Church. Encouraged by the apparitions at Fátima between May and October 1917, which caused a great sensation among the rural people, a strong Catholic reaction to anticlericalism ensued. Backed by various new Catholic organizations such as the "Catholic Youth" and the Academic Center of Christian Democracy (CADC), the Catholic revival influenced government and politics under the Estado Novo. Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar was not only a devout Catholic and member of the CADC, but his formative years included nine years in the Viseu Catholic Seminary preparing to be a priest. Under the Estado Novo, Church-state relations greatly improved, and Catholic interests were protected. On the other hand, Salazar's no-risk statism never went so far as to restore to the Church all that had been lost in the 1911 Law of Separation. Most Church property was never returned from state ownership and, while the Church played an important role in public education to 1974, it never recovered the influence in education it had enjoyed before 1911.Today, the majority of Portuguese proclaim themselves Catholic, and the enduring nature of the Church as an institution seems apparent everywhere in the country. But there is no longer a monolithic Catholic faith; there is growing diversity of religious choice in the population, which includes an increasing number of Protestant Portuguese as well as a small but growing number of Muslims from the former Portuguese empire. The Muslim community of greater Lisbon erected a Mosque which, ironically, is located near the Spanish Embassy. In the 1990s, Portugal's Catholic Church as an institution appeared to be experiencing a revival of influence. While Church attendance remained low, several Church institutions retained an importance in society that went beyond the walls of the thousands of churches: a popular, flourishing Catholic University; Radio Re-nascenca, the country's most listened to radio station; and a new private television channel owned by the Church. At an international conference in Lisbon in September 2000, the Cardinal Patriarch of Portugal, Dom José Policarpo, formally apologized to the Jewish community of Portugal for the actions of the Inquisition. At the deliberately selected location, the place where that religious institution once held its hearings and trials, Dom Policarpo read a declaration of Catholic guilt and repentance and symbolically embraced three rabbis, apologizing for acts of violence, pressures to convert, suspicions, and denunciation. -
13 Noyce, Robert
SUBJECT AREA: Electronics and information technology[br]b. 12 December 1927 Burlington, Iowa, USA[br]American engineer responsible for the development of integrated circuits and the microprocessor chip.[br]Noyce was the son of a Congregational minister whose family, after a number of moves, finally settled in Grinnell, some 50 miles (80 km) east of Des Moines, Iowa. Encouraged to follow his interest in science, in his teens he worked as a baby-sitter and mower of lawns to earn money for his hobby. One of his clients was Professor of Physics at Grinnell College, where Noyce enrolled to study mathematics and physics and eventually gained a top-grade BA. It was while there that he learned of the invention of the transistor by the team at Bell Laboratories, which included John Bardeen, a former fellow student of his professor. After taking a PhD in physical electronics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953, he joined the Philco Corporation in Philadelphia to work on the development of transistors. Then in January 1956 he accepted an invitation from William Shockley, another of the Bell transistor team, to join the newly formed Shockley Transistor Company, the first electronic firm to set up shop in Palo Alto, California, in what later became known as "Silicon Valley".From the start things at the company did not go well and eventually Noyce and Gordon Moore and six colleagues decided to offer themselves as a complete development team; with the aid of the Fairchild Camera and Instrument Company, the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation was born. It was there that in 1958, contemporaneously with Jack K. Wilby at Texas Instruments, Noyce had the idea for monolithic integration of transistor circuits. Eventually, after extended patent litigation involving study of laboratory notebooks and careful examination of the original claims, priority was assigned to Noyce. The invention was most timely. The Apollo Moon-landing programme announced by President Kennedy in May 1961 called for lightweight sophisticated navigation and control computer systems, which could only be met by the rapid development of the new technology, and Fairchild was well placed to deliver the micrologic chips required by NASA.In 1968 the founders sold Fairchild Semicon-ductors to the parent company. Noyce and Moore promptly found new backers and set up the Intel Corporation, primarily to make high-density memory chips. The first product was a 1,024-bit random access memory (1 K RAM) and by 1973 sales had reached $60 million. However, Noyce and Moore had already realized that it was possible to make a complete microcomputer by putting all the logic needed to go with the memory chip(s) on a single integrated circuit (1C) chip in the form of a general purpose central processing unit (CPU). By 1971 they had produced the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which sold for US$200, and within a year the 8008 followed. The personal computer (PC) revolution had begun! Noyce eventually left Intel, but he remained active in microchip technology and subsequently founded Sematech Inc.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFranklin Institute Stuart Ballantine Medal 1966. National Academy of Engineering 1969. National Academy of Science. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Medal of Honour 1978; Cledo Brunetti Award (jointly with Kilby) 1978. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1979. National Medal of Science 1979. National Medal of Engineering 1987.Bibliography1955, "Base-widening punch-through", Proceedings of the American Physical Society.30 July 1959, US patent no. 2,981,877.Further ReadingT.R.Reid, 1985, Microchip: The Story of a Revolution and the Men Who Made It, London: Pan Books.KF -
14 inertisation
инертизация
—
[ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]EN
inertisation
The process of waste inertisation includes solidification and stabilisation; stabilisation is the process used for reduction of hazard potential of the waste by converting the contaminants into their least soluble, least immobile, or least toxic form. Solidification physically binds or encapsulates the waste in a monolithic solid of high structural integrity. Thus solidification may be used for powders, liquids or gases. (Source: ENVAR)
[http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]Тематики
EN
DE
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > inertisation
См. также в других словарях:
Monolithic dome — Example of a Monolithic dome at the Centro de la Familia de Utah Migrant Head Start Center, Genola, Utah. A monolithic dome (from Greek mono and lithic, meaning one stone ) is a structure cast in a one piece form. The form may be permanent or… … Wikipedia
Monolithic HPLC column — A monolithic HPLC column is a special type of column used in HPLC with porous channels rather than beads. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is the third most widely used laboratory instrument, surpassed only by analytical balances and … Wikipedia
Monolithic architecture — For other uses of the term, see Monolith (disambiguation). Pancha Rathas monolith rock cut temple, late 7th century Monolithic architecture is a style of construction in which a building is carved, cast or excavated from a single piece of… … Wikipedia
Monolithic Dome — 3D Modell eines Monolithic Dome Wohngebäudes Eine monolitische Kuppel (englisch: Monolithic Dome) ist ein monolitisches Gebäude, welches die Form einer Halbkugel mit einer Außenhülle aus Stahlbeton besitzt. Die Bauform gleicht dem eines Iglus,… … Deutsch Wikipedia
Concrete shell — Oceanografic Valencia A concrete shell, also commonly called thin shell concrete structure, is a structure composed of a relatively thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior columns or exterior buttresses. The shells are most commonly flat … Wikipedia
Shelby Steele and John E. Jacob: The State of Black America (1988) — ▪ Primary Source The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s represented the apogee of African American political unity. The effort to defeat Jim Crow (Jim Crow law) segregation and to promote federal legislation on behalf of civil… … Universalium
Beijing opera — or Peking opera (zh stp|s=京剧|t=京劇|p=Jīngjù) is a form of traditional Chinese theatre which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in the late 18th century and became fully developed and recognized by the mid 19th… … Wikipedia
Peking opera — The female Peking opera performer Shi Yihong[1] (original name Shi Min) creating the role of concubine Yang Yuhuan in the modern Peking opera Da Tang Guifei … Wikipedia
architecture — /ahr ki tek cheuhr/, n. 1. the profession of designing buildings, open areas, communities, and other artificial constructions and environments, usually with some regard to aesthetic effect. Architecture often includes design or selection of… … Universalium
Western architecture — Introduction history of Western architecture from prehistoric Mediterranean cultures to the present. The history of Western architecture is marked by a series of new solutions to structural problems. During the period from the… … Universalium
Dome — For other uses, see Dome (disambiguation). Domal redirects here. For domal consonants , see Retroflex consonant. Dome of St. Peter s Basilica in Rome crowned by a cupola. Designed primarily by Michelangelo, the dome was not completed until 1590 A … Wikipedia